In ancient times the temples formed the religious and socio economic centres.
The temples were not just places of worship. They were the centres of several activities. The kings, queens and ministers spent a considerable portion of the statewealth in constructing and maintaining these temples.
The temples in turn were places of worship, centres of Vedic studies, centres of festive celebrations, centres for social gatherings and also provided employment to a lot of people. .
Finest of architects and sculptors were appointed to construct these temples. A large part of people‟s lives centred around the temples.
Kumbakonam is known for its temples and Mathas (monasteries which were centres of Brahmanical learning). There are around 188 Hindu temples in and around the town of Kumbakonam. Apart from these, there are several thousand temples around the town thereby giving the town the name "Temple Town" and "City of temples.” “ Kudandai or Kumbakonam is one such place where every street can boast of a temple.”
“Adi Kumbeswarar Temple is considered to be the oldest Shaiva shrine in the town, believed to be constructed by the Cholas in the 7th century.
The Nageswarar Temple has a separate shrine for the Sun God Surya who is believed to have worshipped Shiva at this place. Adi
Kumbeswarar temple, Nageswaraswami temple and Kasi Viswanathartemple are Shiva temples in the town revered in the Tevaram- a Tamil
Shaiva canonical work of the 7th–8th century.”
Someśvarar temple is another temple built by the Cholas in the 13
th century dedicated to Lord Śiva. Kumbakonam also has one of the few temples dedicated to God Brahma. Śārṅgapāṇi temple is the largest Vaiṣṇava shrine present in Kumbakonam and was built by the medieval Cholas. It has a nine storey high Gopuram rising to a height of 150 ft. This temple was renovated by Nayaka Kings in the 15th century. It is one of the "Divya Deśams", the 108 temples of Viṣṇu revered by the 12 Āḻwār saint-poets. In the words of Narayanaswamy , “Of the 108 Divya Desas
The most important is Thiruvarangam. Next comes Tirumalai and the third is this
Kumbakonam.”
In the Sthala Purāṇa „ Makamaka Makiyum’ it is stated that the Rāmasvāmi temple, was extended by Govinda Dikshitar, the minister of successive
Nayaka rulers, Accutappa Nayakaa and Raghunatha Nayakaa. This temple has scenesfrom the Hindu epic Rāmāyaṇa depicted on its walls.
The Sthala Purāṇa also
describes the greatness of the Mahāmaham tank. Pilgrims from all parts of India take a holy dip once every 12 years during the Mahāmaham festival. “Govinda Dikshita is credited with the repair and construction of the sixteen maṇḍapas (shrines) on the
banks of Mahāmagam tank in the Kumbēśvara temple at Kumbakoṇam.”
“The Dhenupurishwarar Temple at Patteeswaram, the Oppiliappan
Kovil, the Swamimalai Murugan temple and the Airateswarar temple
at Darasuram are all located in the vicinity of Kumbakonam.”
Madhavan in her book History and Culture of Tamil Nadu says -
“A proper reconstruction of the history of the Tamil country in the
ancient and medieval periods is not possible without an in- depth study
and analysis of the inscriptions of those periods which offer detailed
information, not provided by any other sources.”
The science of study of these inscriptions made on rocks, pillars, temple walls, copper plates and other writing material is called epigraphy.
The medieval Pallavas,
Cholas and Pandyas ruled over the Tamil country from 500 C.E.– 1400 C.E. and left. behind very rich legacy in the form of thousands of inscriptions which have given us information about the conditions which existed at that time. In the words of Sircar,
“The great importance of inscriptions lies in the fact that they offer information about personages and events about which nothing is known from any other source.”
Political History of Tamil Nadu with a Cultural and Socio-Economic Perspective
The Tamil civilization is amongst the oldest in the world. This region was ruled by the four empires namely the Cheras, Cholas, Pallavas and Pandyas. They
ruled over the Tamil kingdom with utmost pride and uniqueness in terms of culture,administration, language, economic life etc. Some of the most amazing and great literature came into existence during this period. Though the Tamil history goes back thousands of years before the known Saṅgam period before which much of the works on music, dance and drama is believed to have been lost by two great deluges.
“Names of works on music, dance and drama have survived, though
texts themselves have been lost in the huge deluges. A single text
Tholkappium, on ancient Tamil grammar, with references to dance and drama, credited with being the composition of a disciple of Agastya
and belonging to the Second Sangam Age has come down to posterity.” The Saṅgam Period: The Saṅgam period is believed to have lasted from 300 B.C.E. until 300 C.E. During the Saṅgam Age, the three empires that ruled the South of India were that of early Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. As Agarwal points out-
Some of the contents of the Sangam literature are corroborated by the writings of some Greek and Roman classical writers of the first and second century A.D., leading us to fix the period of Sangam age
roughly between third century B.C. to third century A.D. So most of
the Sangam literature also must have been produced during this
period.
Saṅgam literature is one of the main sources used for documenting the early history of the ancient Tamil country. The Saṅgam poems which form the bulk of Saṅgam literature mention numerous Kings and princes, the existence of some of whom have been confirmed through archaeological evidence. Saṅgam literature is
still the main source of information for the early Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras. The social conditions during the Saṅgam period, is as we understand from the Saṅgam literature. The ancient Tamil country was fed by Kāvērī river and there was plentiful of water and grains for all. The following description gives an idea about the royal courts during the Saṅgam period-
“The royal courts were mostly places of social gathering rather than places of dispensation of authority; they were centres for distribution of resources. Gradually the rulers came under the spell of North Indian influence and Vedic ideology, which encouraged performance of sacrifices to enhance the status of the ruler.”
Though there were constant wars among the different Kings for dominion of states and territory, they were all promoters of literature and other classical literary
works. Under their rule, Indian art and culture flourished prosperously. The earliestChola Kings of whom we have tangible evidence are those mentioned in the Saṅgam
literature Cilappatikāram and Maṇimēkalai, written in the period 200 B.C.E.–300 C.E. In the words of Zvelebil “ A literary period is not an ideal type or an abstract pattern of a series of class concept but an actual time section dominated by a whole system of norms and the history of a period should consist in tracing the changes from one system of norms to another.”
Unfortunately, it has not been possible to piece together an internal chronology of the Saṅgam works. Due to this, we know of several rulers, but not theirchronology. The early Cholas were anxious to connect themselves with the
Mahābhārata to prove their antiquity, as is evident from the Saṅgam works. All three Kings have been portrayed as fighting the war or involved in feeding both the armies
at that legendary war. The inscriptions of the medieval Cholas are replete with legends about the mythical early Chola kings. In the words of Sastri Some attention maybe given to the legends about the mythical Cōḷa kings known to this literature.
The Cōḷas were even then looked upon as descended from the sun.” 12 These myths speak of the Chola King Kantaman (supposed contemporary of the sage Agastya), the story of the King Manu and King Śibi who are all part the early Chola legends.
The early Pandyas were one of the dynasties that ruled the ancient
Tamil country from the pre-Christian era to about 200 AD.
The Saṅgam works such as Maturaikkanci, Netunalvatai and
the Purananuru collection give a lot of information about the life and
habits of the people during this age.”
As Sastri discusses in his book about the Early Pāṇḍyan Kingdom. “The earliest historical kings of the Pāṇḍya country are those mentioned in the early Tamil works that have come down to us in the form of collections known as Saṅgam works.”
The Tamil society during the early Pandyan age had several class
distinctions among the people. The highest class below the king, among the Tamils, was the Arivar or the sages. They were the ascetics that renounced materialism and mostly lived outside the cities. Next in rank were the Ulavar or the farmers. Following the Ulavar were the Poruppan or the armed warriors, then comes Ayar or shepherds, then comes Vedduvar or hunters, followed by artisans such as
goldsmiths, blacksmiths etc., then the Valayar or fishermen and finally
the Pulayar or the scavengers.
Saṅgam literature comprises of some of the oldest Tamil Literature, and deals with love, war, governance, trade and bereavement during that period.
The higher classes enjoyed more privileges than the lower classes - for example, when the higher classes passed in the streets, the lower classes made way for them.
The Pulayan, for example, bowed in supplication if he met a nobleman. The class distinctions were quite conspicuous in many aspects of life - the dress worn by the people, the way they groomed themselves and the kind of food they subsisted on were all different from one class to another.
In spite of such class-based social inequalities, there was no slavery in the society
“These twin epics, the Cilappatikāram and Maṇimēkalai can be likened in certain respects to the Ramayana and the Mahabharata and
are invaluable sources for reconstructing the history of the ancient
Tamil land .
Unfortunately much of the Saṅgam literature is lost. The literature currently available from this period is perhaps just a fraction of the wealth of material produced
during this golden age of Tamil civilisation. During the Saṅgam period, Tamil
language had reached a level of maturity and began to serve as a powerful and elegant
medium of literary expression. It had already developed an elaborate code of conventions governing the portrayal of social life in literature. During the Saṅgam period trade was maintained with ancient Greece and Rome. “Internal and external trade was well organised and active.
Evidence from both archaeology and literature
speaks of a flourishing foreign trade with the Yavanas (Greeks).” The Saṅgam age ended around the 3rd century C.E. with the invasion of Kaḷabhras (from the north).
The Chera Dynasty ruled over the Tamil Kingdom from 300 B.C.E. – 250 C.E. Their dynasty perished in 300 C.E. The Chera Dynasty was a Dravidian Tamil dynasty that ruled in Southern India from before the Saṅgam era. Kālitokai, a Sanga work describes Cheras as Viḷḷavar (hunter) people. Chera Flag had bow and arrow the
insignia of Viḷḷavar people. The early Cheras ruled Kerala and Kongu Nadu. Their capital was Vanci Muthur, the present-day Karur in Tamil Nadu. In the words of Nagaswamy “The city is described as a fertile region, abounding in paddy fields and cultivating sugarcanes, plantains, coconuts, betel nut trees, jack fruits, turmeric,
ginger, vanhi and Konrai flowers.”
The different kingdoms during the Saṅgam period flourished with well developed trade with foreign land. People seemed happy though caste system
prevailed. The kingdoms were fed by Kāvērī river and there seem to be plenty of food and grains. Some master pieces in the form of literature were written during Saṅgamage.
This shows that the rulers enjoyed supported art and literature.
Medieval Pallavas, Cholas and Pandyas (400–900 C.E.):
“During the latter half of 4th century, Pallavas the great temple
builders emerged into prominence and dominated the south for another 400 years. A large portion of Tamil Nadu was ruled by them with Kanchipuram as their base. In the 6th century they defeated the Cholas
and ruled as far as Sri Lanka. Among the greatest Pallava rulers were Mahendravarman-I and his son Narasimhavarman.”
The last Pallava King was Aparajitha and he was defeated by Aditya Cholatowards the end of the 9th century. The Pallavas are known to have been great architects who have left behind a rich legacy in the form of some magnificient temples. Dravidian architecture reached its epitome during Pallava rule.
The greatest accomplishments of the Pallava architecture are
the rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram. There are excavated pillared halls and monolithic shrines known as Rathas in Mahabalipuram. Early temples were mostly dedicated to Śiva. The Kailāsanātha temple in
Kanchipuram built by Narasimhavarman II also known as Rajasimha is a fine example of the Pallava style temple. Mention must be made
here of the Shore Temple constructed by Narasimhavarman II near Mahabalipuram which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.”
Late Medieval History (900–1400 C.E.): With the advent of Aditya 1 (850 –
907 C.E.) the Pallava King Aparajita was overthrown and marked the beginning of Cholas rise. His son Parantaka 1 ruled for 48 years (907 – 955 C.E.) and put an end to the Pandyan independence. Under Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola, the Cholas again rose as a notable power in 9th century in South India.
The Chola empire extended to the central Indian states like, Orissa and parts of West Bengal. “With the accession of Rājarāja we enter upon a century of grandeur and glory for the dynasty of the Cōḷas. Quite obviously, the personal ability of the first Rājarāja, in some respects the greatest of all the Cōḷa
rulers of the Vijayālaya line, laid the foundation for the splendid
achievements of his son and successor Rājendra I, under whom the empire attained its greatest extent and carried its arms beyond the seas.
The thirty years of Rājarāja rule constitute the formative period in the history of the Cōḷa monarchy.
Rajaraja Chola conquered the eastern Chalukya kingdom by defeating the Cheras and also occupied parts of Ceylon by defeating the Pandyas. Rajendra Chola went beyond, occupying the islands of Andaman and Nicobar, Lakshadweep,
Sumatra, Java, Malaya and the islands of Pegu with his fleet of ships. He defeated Mahipala, the King of Bihar and Bengal, and to mark his victory he built a newcapital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram. The Cholas started losing their power around
the 13th century. Almost all the Chola Kings built magnificent temples. Bṛhadīśvara temple or more popularly called as the Big Temple in Tanjavur is a classical example of the magnificent architecture of the Chola kingdom. Other Chola marvels include
the Ādi Kumbeśvarar temple at Kumbakonam, Paśupatināthar temple at Pullamangai,
Gangaikoṅḍacoḻeśvaram at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Airāvateśvara temple at
Darasuram and Kambahareśvar temple at Tirubuvanam.
The general features of the Chola Temples are the main temple in
sanctum tower known as Srivimana or Sri Koil, Garbha Graha, an
Ardhamandapa and a Mahamandapa. The construction of the basements in high platform is the predominant feature of this period
for the majestic look of the temple .”
As Cholas declined, the Pandyas once again emerged as a power, in the early 14th century. But this was short lived and soon they were subdued by Muslim Khilji invaders from the north in 1316 C.E. The city of Madurai was plundered and completely destroyed by them. The invasion destroyed the Chola and Pandya dynasties and led to the establishment of Bahmani Kingdom in the northern Deccan.
The Rise of the Vijayanagara Empire: Due to the 14th century invasion by the Mughals, the Hindus retaliated in reaction and rallied to build a strong new kingdom, called the Vijayanagara Empire under Kumarakampanna who was a ruler par excellence.
This empire included all the strongholds of Cholas and other local Hindu rulers to check the Muslims.
The Tanjore Nayaks were first appointed to regulate changes in the
Chola country by the Vijayanagara emperor Achyutadevaraya. Cevappa Nayak who had distinguished himself by the valour in wars, was appointed to the governorship of Tanjore which called for a strong
ruler at that time.”
Vijayanagara Empire was the most prosperous dynasty in the south, with Hampi as the Capital. In the battle of Talikota, the empire came to an end at the hands
of Deccan Sultans. The empire dismantled into many parts and was given to the Nayakas to rule. Under the Telugu Nayakas the Tamil Country was peaceful and prosperous. The Nayakas of Madurai and Tanjavur were most prominent of them all,
who reconstructed some of the oldest temples in the country. In the words of Eshwar,“They built the tower of Arunachaleshwar temple at Tiruvannamalai, Vridhagiriswara temple at Vriddhachalam with beautiful figures
showing the Karanas and the Virupaksha temple at Hampi.
Maratha Conquest of Tanjavur: After the Chola rule came to an end the Pandyas ruled Tanjavur for about a century. Malik Kafur invaded Tanjavur country and it fell into disorder.
The rule of the Delhi Sultanate lasted for half a century before Pandya chieftains tried to rise again.
Soon afterwards, however, they were conquered by the Vijayanagara
Empire. The supremacy of Vijayanagara was challenged by the
Nayakas of Madurai who eventually conquered Tanjavur in 1646. The
rule of the Tanjavur Nayakas lasted until 1673 when Chokkanatha
Nayaka the ruler of Madurai invaded Tanjavur and killed the ruler Vijayaraghava. Chokkanatha placed his brother Alagiri on the throne
of Tanjavur, but within a year the latter threw off his allegiance, and
Chokkanatha was forced to recognise the independence of Tanjavur.
A. son of Vijayaraghava induced the Bijapur Sultan to help him get back the Tanjavur throne.
In 1675, the Sultan of Bijapur sent a force. commanded by the Maratha general Venkoji (alias Ekoji) to recapture
the kingdom from the new invader. Venkoji defeated Alagiri with ease,
and occupied Tanjavur. He did not, however, place his protege on the
throne as instructed by the Bijapur Sultan, but seized the kingdom and
made himself king. Thus began the rule of the Marathas over
Tanjavur.”
Venkoji, was the first Raja of Tanjavur from the Bhonsle dynasty and he ruled for 10 years till 1684. Sahaji I was the eldest son of Venkoji and he ascended the throne at the age of twelve.
The Mughals who occupied the Coromandel coast and
Tiruchirapalli forced Sahaji I to pay tribute to them. Sahaji was a patron of literature. Serfoji I was a younger son of Venkoji and he ruled from 1712 to 1728. There was a lot of warfare during his rule. Tukkoji, a younger brother of Serfoji I ruled Tanjavur from 1728 to 1736. During his rule Chanda Sahib invaded Tanjavur and he withstood the invasion bravely.
After Tukkoji, Pratapsingh succeeded to the throne in 1739. He ruled up to 1763. He aided the British against the French in the Carnatic Wars and the Seven Years War. Tulajaji the last independent ruler of Tanjavur was known to be a
very weak ruler. In 1773, Tanjavur was annexed by the Nawab of the Carnatic and heruled till 1786. Tulajaji was succeeded by his teenage son Serfoji II in 1787. Soon his uncle Amarsingh seized the throne for himself. With the help of the British, Serfoji II recovered the throne .
Serfoji ascended the throne in 1798. Serfoji devoted his life to the
pursuit of culture and Thanjavur became renowned as a seat of
learning. He erected a monument in marble in the chapel at Thanjavur
for Schwartz, the missionary who introduced him to western learning.
Serfoji's love of learning and thirst for knowledge led him to enrich
Sarasvati Mahal Library, which was a Palace Library. He evinced keen interest in the development of the Library. He purchased around 4000 books from abroad at his own cost, read them and left them in the
Library. Medical treatises in the library collection contained his
remarks alongside, in English. His library included treatises on
Vedanta, grammar, music, dance and drama, architecture, astronomy,
medicine, training of elephants and horses etc.”
The Tanjavur Maratha Rajas favoured Sanskrit and Telugu to such an extent
that classical Tamil began to decline. Most of the plays were in Sanskrit. Venkoji, the first ruler of the Bhonsle dynasty composed a 'Dvipada ' Ramayana in Telugu. His son Shahaji was a great patron of learning and literature. Most of the Tanjavur Maratha literature is from his period. Most of them were versions of the Rāmāyana or plays
and short stories of a historical nature. Sanskrit and Telugu were the languages used in most of these plays while there were some Tamil 'Kūttu ' as well. Advaita Kīrtana
is one of the prominent works from this period. Later Tanjavur rulers like Serfoji II and Shivaji immersed themselves in learning and literary pursuits when they were
dispossessed of their empire. Serfoji built the Sarasvati Mahal Library within the precints of the palace to house his enormous book and manuscript collection.
The Tanjavur Maharaja‟s Sarasvati Mahal Library is one among the few medieval libraries that exist in the world. It is an unbounded
repository of culture and inexhaustible treasure house of knowledge built by successful dynasties of Nayaks and Marathas of Tanjavur. It
contains very rare and valuable collection manuscripts, books, maps
and paintings on all aspects of Arts, Culture and Literature. TheEncyclopedia of Britannica in its survey of libraries of the world
mentions this as the most remarkable library in India.
Modern History (from 17th century): The British, under the British East India Company, established a settlement further south, in present day Chennai, in the year 1639. The British took advantage of the petty quarrels among the provincial rulers to expand their area of power. The British fought with the various European powers, notably the French at Vandavasi (Wandiwash) in 1760, and the Dutch at
Tarangambadi driving the Dutch away entirely, and reducing the French dominions in India to Pondicherry. The British also fought four wars with the kingdom of Mysore under Hyder Ali and later his son Tipu Sultan, which led to their eventual domination
of India's south. They consolidated southern India into the Madras Presidency.
After India gained ( in 1947, Madras Presidency became Madras State, comprising of present day Tamil Nadu, coastal Andhra Pradesh, Northern Kerala, and
the Southwest coast of Karnataka. The state was later divided on the basis of linguistic lines into different states.
A study of the history of medieval times brings to light that all the Pallavas and Cholas were great temple builders. A lot of wealth was put into temple building.
The further dynasties also took special care to expand and add to the existing temples. This shows that the temples were of great importance. In the olden days they served
as the modern day clubs where people gathered to socialize, meet and enjoy though it
had a devotional touch to it. Dance and music naturally was a part of celebration and devotion. The wealthy kings loved art and hence patronized them. This saw to the development of the art form.
Administration and Socio-Economic Conditions during the Ancient Saṅgam, the
Medieval Pallavas, Cholas and Pandyas
In ancient and medieval India, monarchy was the most common form of government. The King was the highest authority in the land and was the focal point of highest authority in administration also.
As Madhavan describes,
The Dharmaśāstras give a good guideline as to the qualities which a
king was supposed to posses. The Manusmṛiti clearly states that a king should possess qualities such as wisdom, enthusiasm, personal ability, modesty and humility.”
These qualities of a king are enumerated in the Arthaśāstra and the Kural (a work of Saṅgam period). These texts also spoke of the vices a king should not havelike anger, lust, gambling and drinking. These texts emphasized that the kings should be righteous, truthful and educated who ruled with the welfare of their subjects
upmost in their minds.
As Madhavan points out both Manusmṛiti and Arthaśāstra of
Kauṭilya speak of the divine origin of the rulers. The Pallavas are believed to have descended from Aśvathāma. The Pandyas are believed to be belonging to the lunar dynasty with the moon as their divine ancestor and the Cholas claimed to belong to
the solar dynasty with the Sun as their ancestor. Both in Manusmṛiti and Arthaśāstra, the highest duty of a king is described as protection of his subjects. The king also considered his people as his children. He cared for his subjects as a father.
Caste was the basis of Tamil society. According to Subramanian, “Even in Tolkāppiyam there is reference to 4 caste divisions- Aracar, Antanar, Vaṇikar and Vēḷāḷar.”
The king‟s family, noble ones, petty kings, landlords and warriors enjoyed the status of Aracar. The Priest , Scholars , Poets , Astrologers and like people
enjoyed Antanar status. The trade men like Chettis, Manaikan,Masatuvans and like
people enjoyed Vaṇikar status, as they engage in business. The final subjects who farm the land and do menial works come under Vēḷālar.
The higher classes enjoyed more privileges than the lower classes - for example, when the higher classes passed in the streets, the lower classes made way for them.
Succession of the kings was hereditary in the Tamil country. Usually the eldest son was heir to the throne. During all the rules i.e. of the Pallavas, Cholas and the Pandyas this system of succession seemed to have been followed. The kings of the Tamil country adopted some imperial titles. “Mahārāja, Dharma Mahārāja,Mahārājādhirāja, Dharmamahārājādhirāja were some of the titles borne by the early Pallava rulers. The Cōḷa rulers adopted the titles like rājakesari and parakesari alternatively on ascending the throne.”
The ruling dynasties used particular symbols as emblems which adorned all official documents of the state for the purpose administration. The Pallavas used the
bull as the official symbol of the dynasty.
The following is the description of the. Pallava king Rajasimha in the South Indian Inscriptions: “He whose power is rising.
He whose fame is rising. He who boasts of the bull (as his sign). He who possesses. the sign of the bull.”
The Cholas used the tiger as the crest of their dynasty. The Pandyas used the figure of fish as the royal emblem. Madhavan explains in her book, that the Kings of Tamil country ruled effectively with the help of ministers, generals, advisors, high officials of the King and superintendents. The King was the highest judicial authority in ancient India. He imparted justice according to the Dharmaśāstra with the help of his ministers who were well versed in it. Dharmaśāstras are Sanskrit texts relating to
religious and legal duties. The king had to impart impartial justice
.The Manusmṛiti also spoke of imparting proper justice and punishment of guilty. Apart from the royal court there were several small Sabhas which settled disputes at the village level.
Punishment was considered as necessary for maintaining law and order in the country. Corporal punishment given by the king was popular during the Pallava period.
Even Pandyas were known to strictly execute justice. Sometimes even death was granted to criminals.
In Cilappatikāram translated by Dikshitar the justice meted out to to Kovalan is described as follows–
“The goldsmith went post haste to the palace, informed the king that
he had found out the thief who had stolen the queen‟s anklet and
handed it over to the king. Without bestowing a moment‟s thought on
the matter the king ordered his executioners to behead the thief.”
The kings of the Tamil country gave a lot of importance to giving gifts. Gifts in the form of land (Bhūmidāna) was given to Brahmins (Brahmadeya) and a lot of wealth was given as charity to temples (Devadāna) for their construction and
maintainence.
Tulābāradānam was an existing practice of the kings. In the words of Dikshitar,“The Tulābāradānam was a redeeming feature of the royal festivities. It was
a gift of gold to the deserving, generally a srōtriya, equal to the donor‟s weight.”
The imposition of taxes was considered as lawful means of revenue administration. The Dharmaśātras also permitted the collection of taxes by the king
from his subjects in a just manner. The kings during the Pallava, Chola and Pandya periods also levied taxes on their subjects. The gift of land given to learned Brahmins were exempted from taxes (Parihāra). As Dikshitar describes
“Among the communities the Brahmans received much respect for their learning in the sacred lore and for their continuance of the fire
rites.
They were often awarded rich presents both in cash and kind.”34
This is supported in the Arthaśāstra also. It is said that those who perform sacrifices, are well versed in Vedas, spiritual teachers and priests should be given land as gift and exempted from taxes.
An important means of revenue was also the booty
captured from the defeated king during conquests.This include the king‟s crown, treasury, his army, his wife, his daughter etc.The state expenditure of the kings during the times of the Pallavas, Cholas
and Pandyas were many. A large amount of wealth was spent in maintain defence systems since frequent wars were waged. A large number of sacrifices were performed by the kings like Ashvamedha, Rājasūya, Tulābhāra. Madhavan says that that this is revealed by Sanskrit inscriptions. All these ceremonies were elaborate and incurred large expenditures.
The inscriptions further reveal that a lot of the state
money was also spent towards construction of wells and tanks, building of hospitals and temples and their maintenance. Maintenance of officials in various departments,
allowances to queens and other members of the royal families were part of state expenditure.
A lot of money was also given to poor and needy and the learned Brahmins. “The above is revealed by the inscriptions,” says Madhavan.
Agriculture was the most common occupation of the people in the Tamil country during the reign of Pallavas, Pandyas and Cholas. An entire chapter in Kuraḷ supports this says Madhavan. Artisans like weavers, goldsmith, blacksmith,
carpenters were held in high esteem.
The really skilled workers were exempted from taxes by the king. The architectural marvels during the time of Pallavas, Cholas and
Pandyas show that during these times there existed very highly skilled architects. In addition to building temples these architects must have also built magnificent palaces
of the kings.
The architects during these times were well versed in Śilpa Śastra and
Vāstu Śāstra and the also had a good knowledge of mathematics and several sciences.
All this information is supported by Sanskrit inscriptions says Madhavan. Religion
played a very important role right from the time of ancient Tamils. This manifested itself in the construction of magnificient temples.
As Balasubramanyam puts it “Chola kings of late Saṅgam period built many Śiva and Viṣṇu temples in Tamil land
All the great royal ventures were only for Siva. The royal temples of Rajaraja I and Rajendra I were built in capital cities of Tanjavur and
Gangaikondacolapuram.
Such magnificent monuments glorified Siva as the Supreme Lord .
The temples also played a very important role in the socio economic sphere.
Temples were not only places of worship but gradually created a lot of jobs for the. people. The temple maintenance needed priests, accountants, cleaners, sweepers,
masons, artisans etc.
The temple became the hub of socio economic life in villages.
The temples also served as centres for Vedic learning says Madhavan.
The Brahmins formed a very important part of the society right from the. Saṅgam age. They occupied a very honoured place in the society. They were mainly priests and teacher. According to Manusmṛiti “Teaching, studying, sacrificing for
himself, sacrificing for others, making gifts and receiving them are the six acts prescribed for a Brāhmaṇ.”
Sometimes the Brahmins followed other professions
like the minister in the government. They were very well versed in Śastras, Purāṇas. and Itihāsas. They were even equated with gods on earth (Bhūdeva). All during the Pallava, Chola and Pandya period gifting of land to the Brahmins was considered as
a meritorious act.
Among the communities the Brahmans received much respect
specially for their learning in the sacred lore and for their continuance. of the fire rites. They were often awarded rich presents both in cash
and kind.
There were numerous instances where Bhūmi Dāna was done to the Brahmins by the kings and ministers. Though the Brahmin belonged to the highly learned strata
of the society sometimes they strayed into other professions says Madhavan. During the rule of Cholas, Aniruddha, a Brahmin by birth held the position of a minister in
the court of the king Sundara Chola.
He held the title of Brahmādhirāja.
This information is supported by the Anbil plates of Sundara Chola says Sastri.
According to Madhavan the other castes which existed was that of Kṣatriya, Vaiśyas, Śūdras and
certain sub sects which arose due to intercaste marriages like Māhiṣya, Rathakāras, Karaṇīs.
There was social harmony amongst the castes says N.Sastri.
There is practically no evidence of ugly social conflicts and jealousies
such as those between the right-hand and left hand castes, between
Brahmins and non-Brahmins of more recent times. The general
impression derived is one of social harmony, removed alike from the
placid content which knows no ambition and the blind and ruthless
pursuit of class-interests .”
The women had a more passive role to play in the society. They never. achieved the same status as men but achieved high levels excellence in the cultural. spheres. From Saṅgam age through the rule of Pallavas, Pandyas and Cholas , the
women remained subordinate to men.
The practice of Sati was prevalent right from the Saṅgam period. Several women including queens were known to have committed
Sati after the death of their husbands. There were also other customs where the wives
removed all their ornaments after the death of their husbands. The following is from
the translation of the Tiruvalangadu copper plates of the sixth year of Rajendra
Chola I -I am determined to follow my lord Sundara (i.e. the beautiful) before
(he) is coveted by the celestial damsels,” so saying zealously, his
devoted queen the glorious Vanavanmahadevi, a very Arundhati in (her) manifold good qualities, abandoned her own people and followed
him as [night] the day to heaven, afraid as it were of the allurement (of her husband) by celestial nymphs and (desirous consequently of) being
near (him) even there.” 40
The queens of the Tamil country did not take active part in administration says
Madhavan.
Instead they were actively involved in building temples, installing deities and made contributions to temples. Many of the queens were endowed with great
beauty, high character and virtues. The kings of the Tamil countries were polygamists. They had more than one wife. The kings gave an honourable position to the queens. Out of the many wives one would be the favourite or the chief queen.
In contrast to the treatment given to their own queens the fate of the captured queens was
quite harsh. “An epigraph of Rājarāja I mentions the plight of the queens of the Keraḷa
king who was vanquished by this Coḷa ruler and who were forced to take refuge at his
feet.”
The socio economic condition of the people during medieval times was good. The Kings who ruled during this time were upholders of justice and strictly followed the Dharmasāstra. People were generally happy and prosperous under the great
Kings.
Kings spent a lot of wealth in constructing and maintaining temples and they being well versed in music supported the evolution of dance forms in the temples.
Temples got filled with sculptures
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